The law of large numbers is a fundamental principle in probability theory that states that as the number of trials in a random experiment increases, the average of the outcomes will converge to the expected value of the experiment with increasing accuracy.

Statement:

Given a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables (RVs) with expected value μ and variance σ², then the average of the first n trials will converge to μ with a probability of 1 as n increases to infinity.

Mathematical Formulation:

$$lim_{ntoinfty} frac{1}{n} sum_{i=1}^n X_i = μ text{ with probability 1}$$

where:- X_i is the random variable representing the outcome of the i-th trial- μ is the expected value of X_i- n is the number of trials

Explanation:

The law of large numbers is based on the principle that randomness averages out. As the number of trials increases, the random fluctuations in the average outcome become smaller and smaller, and the average converges to the expected value.

Applications:

• Estimating population parameters (e.g., mean, variance) from sample data
• Testing hypotheses in statistics
• Constructing confidence intervals and hypothesis tests
• Deriving probabilities of events in random experiments

Examples:

• Flipping a coin: The average number of heads in a sequence of coin flips will converge to 50% with increasing accuracy as the number of flips increases.
• Rolling a die: The average number of dots on a roll of a die will converge to 3.5 with increasing accuracy as the number of rolls increases.

Assumptions:

• Independent and identically distributed random variables
• Finite expected value and variance
• Infinite number of trials

Note:

The law of large numbers does not guarantee exact convergence. However, it provides a very accurate approximation for large numbers of trials.